Canadian and global climate change ambitions are generally associated with a goal of reducing reliance on fossil fuels as a mechanism to reduce carbon emissions. Within this context, the Canadian oil sands have been characterized as “too expensive” to maintain production if global crude oil...

Biophysical Economics is a school of heterodox economics built on the premise of the primacy of energy in the economic process. Despite significant progress made in the methodology of net-energy analysis, the literature on the relationships between the biophysical properties of energy sources,...