mapped into the observed 1-5 integer scores, for over 4.5 million students. Earning higher AP integer scores positively … that receiving a score of 3 over a 2 on junior year AP exams causes students to take between 0.06 and 0.14 more AP exams …

investments that we document leads to the question of how students from different backgrounds sort into these different … institutions and programs. We discuss the emerging research showing that lower-SES students, especially in the U.S., are more … policies designed to support success among students from disadvantaged backgrounds. The Chapter concludes with some broad …