track students. However, there are concerns that the most frequently used college placement exams lack validity and … reliability, and unnecessarily place students from under-represented groups into remedial courses. While recent research has shown … that tracking can have positive effects on student learning, inaccurate placement has consequences: students face …

addressing unobserved residence-country features, we find similar results when assigning migrant students their country …

rate versus just the steady-state income level - matters less than academic discussions suggest. We close by discussing …