mapped into the observed 1-5 integer scores, for over 4.5 million students. Earning higher AP integer scores positively … that receiving a score of 3 over a 2 on junior year AP exams causes students to take between 0.06 and 0.14 more AP exams …

achievement. Evaluating the impact of such programs is complicated by the fact that a highly select sample of students takes …-taking, and credit accumulation. This is true despite the fact that those students who win the lotteries attend better high …

In previous research, a substantial gap in test scores between White and Black students persists, even after …