mapped into the observed 1-5 integer scores, for over 4.5 million students. Earning higher AP integer scores positively … that receiving a score of 3 over a 2 on junior year AP exams causes students to take between 0.06 and 0.14 more AP exams …

depends on whether students are the same race or ethnicity as their instructors. To identify racial interactions and address … potential biases from sorting by focusing on students with restricted course enrollment options due to low registration … priorities, students not getting first section choices, and on courses with no within-term or within-year racial variation in …

computers to students. Although computer ownership and use increased substantially, we find no effects on any educational …