children born to less educated and minority mothers are more likely to be exposed to pollution in utero and that white, college …

one or more cohorts of students take three or more tests in the subject of interest (e.g., state assessments in three …

scores for eight birth cohorts of Rhode Island children born between 1997 and 2005. Using these data, we show that reductions … of lead from even historically low levels have significant positive effects on children's reading test scores in third ….1 percentage points (on a baseline of 12 percent). Moreover, as we show, poor and minority children are more likely to be exposed …

teachers resulted in average improved achievement for students in the poorest decile of schools of .03 standard deviations …

, while less effective transfers stay in lower-performing schools, likely exacerbating the differences across students in the …

to work in schools with higher achieving students from more advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds. Principals often use … schools with many poor or low-achieving students as stepping stones to what they view as more desirable assignments. We use …

tried to integrate schools. Today, district-wide choice allows Boston and New York students to enroll far from home, perhaps …