This paper formulates and estimates multistage production functions for children's cognitive and noncognitive skills … investment in children compared to later remediation. We establish nonparametric identification of a general class of production … targeting of interventions to children with different parental and personal birth endowments. Substitutability decreases in …

Students receive abundant information about their educational performance, but how this information affects future …-mandated standardized tests. On these tests, students receive a score and a label that summarizes their performance. Using a regression …-discontinuity design, we find persistent effects of earning a more positive label on the college-going decisions of urban, low-income …

the variance in knowledge does indeed rise as children progress through school, but not enough for test score …

standard deviation on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Between 2019 and 2022, U.S. students had … between NAEP scores and students' later life outcomes by year and state of birth. We find that a standard deviation … improvement in a birth cohort's 8th grade math achievement was associated with an 8 percent rise in income, as well as improved …