This paper argues that school grades cannot be interpreted solely as a reward for a given school performance, since … they also reflect teachers' ratings of pupils. Grades therefore contain valuable information about pupils' own - usually … effort that pupils invest in education. Getting discounted grades in year 6 for a given level of math performance assessed …

While much empirical work concerns job tenure, this paper introduces the concept of school tenure - the length of time … one student has been in a given school. I examine whether and how school tenure impacts students' output using rich cohort … longer own school tenure but suffer from that of their peers. Using the number of times the student moved school during the …

all due to differences in what students bring with them to school - socio-economic background, cultural factors, and the … like? Or do school systems make a difference? This essay argues that differences in features of countries' school systems … factors of the school system, as well as factors beyond the school system, account for cross-country achievement differences …

We evaluate the impact of the Gambian hardship allowance, which provides a salary premium of 30-40% to primary school …