In the summer of 1931, a financial crisis began in Austria, spread to Germany, forced Britain to abandon the gold standard, crossed the Atlantic, and afflicted financial institutions in the United States. This article describes how banks in New York City, the central money market of the United...

We discuss the development of ‘modern’ banking in Ottoman lands during the nineteenth century. We present some evidence showing considerable local financial sophistication prior to European entry in 1856. Drawing on the ‘constitutional commitment’ literature we argue its success was...

In the summer of 1931, a financial crisis began in Austria, spread to Germany, forced Britain to abandon the gold standard, crossed the Atlantic, and afflicted financial institutions in the United States. This article describes how banks in New York City, the central money market of the United...