The EU's finances have become more complex because of a proliferation of off‑budget mechanisms alongside the traditional budget. Most of these new mechanisms involve borrowing and lending activities. The agreement of the Next Generation EU response to the pandemic accentuates the trend towards...

Public investment has been low in recent years, resulting in shortcomings in infrastructure and other public assets capable of underpinning economic growth and competitiveness. Efforts at the EU level to establish a Sovereignty Fund intended to enhance competitiveness and to respond to the likes...