With increasing sophistication, economists have been estimating gravity equations for five decades. Robust evidence shows that borders and distance impede trade by much more than tariffs or transport costs can explain. We therefore advocate investigation of other sources of resistance, despite...

Development of globalization carries permanently changes in international trade relationships both in goods and increasingly in services. There are an increasing number of economic activities that are traded worldwide. This paper boards old and new issues of globalization from three points of...