This paper considers domestic product standards that do not raise the willingness to pay by consumers but increase the costs for foreign suppliers of serving the market. It is shown in a Cournot triopoly model that such standards can be used as strategic tool to raise domestic welfare by...

This paper analyses the effects of non-tariff barriers, in terms of both variable and fixed export costs, on trade structure. The relationship between fixed and variable trade costs determines whether international trade emerges. If trade emerges, only variable, but not fixed export costs,...

This paper analyses the effects of non-tariff barriers, in terms of both variable and fixed export costs, on the structure of trade and industry. We find that the relationship between fixed and variable trade costs affects industrial structure and determines whether international trade emerges....