This paper discusses instruments and operating procedures of the conduct of monetary policy in the major industrial countries. The exchange rate mechanism of the European Monetary System (EMS) provides clear evidence of the role of exchange rates in influencing monetary policy; the commitment of...

The 2015 Article IV Consultation provides an overview of New Zealand's economic development and policies. Tailwinds have supported the economy's strong growth after the global financial crisis. However, the tailwinds have recently waned. Growth peaked at 3.5 percent year-over-year in the fourth...

New Zealand's economy has enjoyed a solid expansion since 2011. With a persistent net migration wave, potential output has moved closely in line with actual output, and economic slack has decreased slowly. Macroeconomic imbalances overall have narrowed, although macro-financial vulnerabilities...

Following a deep recession in 2020 and further contraction in 2021Q1, the euro area economy recovered rapidly in the second and third quarters thanks to high vaccination levels, increasing household and business adaptability to the virus, and continued forceful policy support. Looking ahead,...

The pandemic dealt a severe blow to the Italian people and their economy. GDP fell by nearly 9 percent in 2020, with much larger drops for contact-intensive services. Public and corporate debt increased strongly and preexisting vulnerabilities have likely worsened. The government is prioritizing...

Ireland entered the COVID pandemic with reduced vulnerabilities and high growth, especially in multinational enterprises (MNEs)-dominated sectors. The pandemic has had a highly asymmetric impact on the economy. The domestic sectors contracted by about 10 percent in 2020 and unemployment reached...