A robust body of evidence shows that air pollution exposure is detrimental to health outcomes, often measured as deaths …, performance, and skills. This article reviews the economic research investigating the causal effects of pollution on "non … pollution can be more challenging to observe than formal health care encounters but may be more pervasive if they affect …

A pervasive problem in the literature on the health costs of pollution is that optimizing individuals may compensate … for increases in pollution by reducing their exposure to protect their health. This implies that estimates of the health … effects of pollution may vastly understate the full welfare effects of pollution, particularly for individuals most at risk …

For political, jurisdictional and technical reasons, environmental regulation of industrial pollution is often … incomplete: regulations apply to only a subset of facilities contributing to a pollution problem. Policymakers are increasingly …