equivalents for a product can be misleading as an indicator of the trade or welfare effects of policies affecting that product … article develops a new set of more-satisfactory indicators for that purpose, drawing on the recent literature on trade …

provides indicators of trade and welfare-reducing effects of price and trade policies which this paper builds on to develop … developing and high-income countries over the past half century. These better approximations of the trade and welfare effects of …

upgrading. The overall evidence points to the benefits of trade openness for product innovation but demonstrates at the same …

development and by letting the effects of foreign shocks depend on the degree of trade and financial integration. The findings … measures of trade and financial integration, as well as four types of foreign shocks: terms of trade changes, trading partners …

"The binding of tariff rates and adoption of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization … pressures for protection in agencies with economy-wide accountabilities. The World Trade Organization's procedural requirements … the rules against them. They pointed out that World Trade Organization rules do not require the use of such criteria, nor …

"The authors provide estimates of the impact that removing all merchandise trade distortions (including agricultural … subsidies) would have on food and agricultural production, trade, and incomes. Using the latest versions of the Global Trade …, and real net farm incomes would all rise substantially in developing country regions with a move to free merchandise trade …