controversial issue. From the early 2000s the EU introduced a series of directives to prevent a race to the bottom in asylum … 2003 to 2017. The outcomes of the EU directives have been mixed, but taken together they are associated with increased … after accounting origin country composition and for differences in the adoption of EU directives. Some of this may be …

-crisis level of liberalization. In the EU sample, however, we do not find sufficient evidence to support these observations. …