Financing of investments through green bonds has grown rapidly in recent years. But definitions of what makes a bond "green" vary. Various certification mechanisms have evolved to allow more granularity as well as continuity in assessment. Green bonds have been priced at issuance at a premium on...

What would balance sheets look like if the borrowing through FX swaps and forwards were recorded on-balance sheet, as the functionally equivalent repo debt is? We combine various data sources to estimate the size, distribution and use of this "missing" debt and to begin to assess its...