We propose that outcome utility and process utility can be distinguished and empirically measured. People gain … procedural utility from participating in the political decision-making process itself, irrespective of the outcome. Nationals … enjoy both outcome and process utility, while foreigners are excluded from political decision-making and therefore cannot …

important case of independence, it is shown that the self-employed derive more utility from their work than people employed by … an organization, irrespective of income gained or hours worked. This is evidence for procedural utility: people do not …