Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a population based stochastic optimization technique. PSO is similar to optimization with Genetic Algorithms (GA). In PSO, the potential solutions (particles) move through the problem space by following the current optimum particles. Experience shows that PSO...

Theory often suggests that wider household participation in stockholding reduces wealth inequality by expanding access. Empirical participation literature raises concerns that newcomers may be less educated, less sophisticated, and poorer. We use SCF data to decompose changes in wealth...