passenger road traffic, total external costs amount to about 44 ECU/1000 pkm on the route Frankfurt -Milan, including the impact … of the transport modes, external costs of passenger road traffic are about 9 times as high as those of rail traffic and … about twice as high as those of air traffic. For goods transport by road, the total external costs (30.6 ECU/1000 tkm) are …

1978 to 1990. Using a quadratic cost function, six production factors are distinguished : capital, energy, three types of …