and students’ cognitive and socio-emotional development. The German panel evidence shows that children’s learning time … decreased severely during the first school closures, particularly for low-achieving students, and increased only slightly one … activities. The review shows substantial losses in cognitive skills on achievement tests, particularly for students from …

approach is the insight that epidemic dynamics are best tracked over stages, rather than over time. We use a normalization … procedure that makes the pre-policy paths of the epidemic identical across regions. The procedure uncovers regional variation in … the stage of the epidemic at the time of policy implementation. This variation delivers clean identification of the policy …