effort costs and inequality aversion. -- Appraisals ; inequality aversion ; performance evaluation ; centrality bias … many supervisors tend to assess the employees too good (leniency bias) and that the appraisals hardly vary across employees … of a certain supervisor (centrality bias). We explain these two biases in a model with a supervisor, who has preferences …

downward bias resulting from the partial observability of circumstances that affect individual outcome. We show that such … estimates may also suffer from upward bias as a consequence of sampling variance. The magnitude of the latter distortion depends … contributions, the upward bias may be significant and challenge the interpretation of inequality of opportunity estimates as lower …