Mathematics has become an integral part of 20th century economics. Mathematical techniques that were considered to be on the fringes of economics even a few decades ago are today considered mainstream economics. Economists presented considerable resistance in the past to the encroachment of...

When empirically investigating situations in which human ignorance and historical time are significant features, use of the notion of probability, in any of its forms, is not legitimate. Thus, familiar distributional techniques such as hypothesis testing and estimation, and standard methods of...

Propositions true by interlocking definitions or by convention occur fairly often. Recognizing their nature and usefulness helps forestall misunderstanding and quibbles. Examples include Walras's Law, the equation of exchange, microeconomic tautologies, the money-multiplier formula, the...

Endogenous change in the economy is caused by innovative activities of the economic agents. The paper discusses how hypotheses on innovative activities which account for the epistemological problems implied by novelty can be developed. Considerations relating to these problems suggest population...

Identification of systems from empirical data is a fundamental problem of economic science. In 1982 Leontief testified that Haavelmo's statistical approach to this problem has not advanced an objective understanding of economic systems. The question is: why? The standard presumptions of...