A New-Keynesian model with deep habits and optimal monetary policy delivers a larger-than-1 fiscal multiplier and consumption crowding in. Optimized Taylor-type rules dominate a conventional Taylor rule. Consumption is crowded out if the Taylor rule is suboptimal or if commitment is absent.

We estimate an alternative type of monetary policy rule according to which the central bank targets a discounted infinite sum of expected inflation and output gaps. Empirical results suggest that the Fed has a mean forward horizon of 4 to 8 quarters.