There is a duality of money : it is endogenous and exogenous. Therefore it is important to distinguish between monetary creation and money supply. Buying and selling means the exchange of goods and debts, which is very different from barter. In doing so the economic agents are asked to take two...

There is not a single classical approach to the lender of last resort, but several classical approaches to the lender of last resort. They have been successively developed by Baring, Thornton, the Banking School, Bagehot and Hawtrey. If these approaches converge in stressing that the lender of...

The arrival in France of the euro in 2002, and the withdrawal of the franc, have been anticipated within many companies in all operational areas (payroll, billing and accounting for example). As far as price policy is concerned, the company must determine, beyond the compulsory legal conversion,...

The optimal inflation rate is an outstanding issue in monetary theory and policy. Previous work attempting to rationalize positive inflation targets chosen by central banks is subject to a major criticism, since its conclusions depend on the assumption that only one currency is available to...

In his 1903 thesis - “Money and credit instruments in their relation to general prices” - published in 1907, E.W. Kemmerer argued that the market prices of goods cannot be determined by the equations of demand and supply of goods without introducing the “missing” equilibrium equation of...

Early research work confirms that the use of the new European currency, the euro, could create an effect of money illusion: expressed in euros, perceived prices seem lower and price elasticity diminished. But it also concludes on the complexity of the relationship between prices, currency unit...

By its nature, bank money is endogenous, but its issuing is risky and presupposes the presence of banks' shareholders' funds. Shareholders' funds give banks the means of dealing with the difficulties involved in the process of money creation and which are inherent to the banking activity:...