Napoleon’s invasion sparked the liberal revolution in Spain and led to the loss of its continental American colonies. Civil wars and a series of coups ensued, giving rise to successive regime changes. The liberal reforms were followed by absolutist counter-reforms that allowed the survival of...

The year 1898 was the year of the disaster. In two naval battles - one in the Caribbean and the other in the Pacific - the Spanish fleet was destroyed and Spain lost its remaining colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The defeat, which brought an end to the nation’s imperial status,...