Macroeconomic costs of conflict are generally very large, with GDP per capita about 28 percent lower ten years after …

fiscal costs of such reversals. We thereby integrate the country-specific information from the latest Ageing Report into a … additional pension reforms needed to contain the public debt pressures arising from population ageing and second the costs of … costs and could pose challenges for fiscal sustainability …

: (1) distribution expenses are large – they amount to over half of labor costs; (2) plants in the largest decile …, distribution costs as a share of sales declined by one third. We develop a model of heterogeneous manufacturing firms that rely on … share. In combination with the model, these trends suggest largescale decreases in both variable and fixed costs of …