During Egypt's Arab Spring, unprecedented popular mobilization and protests brought down Hosni Mubarak's government and …

rents for bureaucrats than would an efficient state structure. When the poor come to power in democracy, they will reform …

nondemocracy to democracy, alters the distribution of de jure political power, but the elite can intensify their investments in de … facto political power, such as lobbying or the use of paramilitary forces, to partially or fully offset their loss of de … we refer to as invariance. When the model is enriched to allow for limits on the exercise of de facto power by the elite …