Childlessness, a driving force of fertility, has undergone strong variations in 20th-century Europe, and educational attainment has been rising continuously. We analyse how these two factors were related to each other over time. Our study is based on census and largescale survey data from 13...

Data on educational access show gender parity of pupils attending primary and secondary schools in transition countries. The first aim of this analysis is to examine whether the gender balance in educational access translates also into gender equality in educational achievement. There are...

We estimate educational production functions for seven Eastern European transition countries, using student-level TIMSS data for lower secondary education. The results show substantial effects of student background on educational performance and a much lower impact of resources and the...