This paper explores the way governments rely on budgets. Budgets are classified with reference to functions (e.g. defence, education, etc.), but expenditure from one budget (e.g. the overseas budget) can prove as effective as expenditure from another budget (e.g. the environment budget) when...

When is government expenditure likely to be procyclical? While economists tend to anticipate counter-cyclical expenditure, recent studies report procyclical expenditure. This paper explores the impact of political ideology on the cyclicality of government expenditure. Predictions are tested with...

We analyse the take-up by firms of internationally recognized standards such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14000. Based on an analysis of 11,668 firms in countries in Asia and Eastern Europe, we conclude that the probability of standard certification increases with firm size, is greatest in large cities...