, motherhood, and wages. We find that heterogeneity leads to biased estimates of the quot;directquot; effects of marriage and … motherhood on wages (i.e., effects net of experience and tenure); first-difference estimates reveal no direct effect of marriage … or motherhood on women's wages. We also find statistical evidence that experience and tenure nay be endogenous variables …

We investigate the impact of union strength on changes in nonunion wages and employment. The prevailing model in this … area is the threat model, which predicts that increases in union strength cause increases in nonunion wages and decreases … threat) are associated with increases in the nonunion wage. Furthermore, increases in union wages appear to decrease, rather …

productivity of women is less than that of men, but not by enough to fully explain the gap in wages, a result that is consistent … deferred wages. We find a productivity premium for marriage equal to that of the wage premium, and a productivity premium for …