expose different areas of the polity to controlled informational treatments about the valence and ideology of the incumbent … ideology. We find that both valence and ideological messages affect the first and second moments of the belief distribution …, but only campaigning on valence brings more votes to the incumbent. With respect to ideology, cross-learning occurs, as …

There are two different types of media bias. One bias, which we refer to as ideology, reflects a news outlet's desire …

We introduce a rational choice theory that allows for many forms of imperfect perception, including failures of memory …, selective attention, and adherence to simplifying rules of thumb. Despite its generality, the theory has strong, simple, and … (stochastic) consequences of their available choices. Our theory separately identifies two distinct "framing" effects: standard …