scientist and (b) applied for (an eventually granted) patent with non-patent references, where these references are used …

We study how the market for innovation affects enforcement of patent rights. Conventional wisdom associates the gains … from trade with comparative advantage in manufacturing or marketing. We show that these gains imply that patent … transactions should increase litigation risk. We identify a new source of gains from trade, comparative advantage in patent …

identifies a number of specific fact patterns under which the current U.S. patent system allows patent holders to capture private … deadweight loss associated with the patent system and discourage innovation by others. Economic efficiency is promoted if rewards … to patent holders are aligned with and do not exceed their social contributions. This paper analyzes two major reforms to …

and as a patent. Such patent-paper pairs are at the heart of our empirical strategy. We exploit the fact that patents are … knowledge associated with a patent paper pair therefore diffuses within two distinct intellectual property environments %u2013 …-indifferences estimator for 169 patent-paper pairs (and including a control group of publications from the same journal for which no patent is …