are not the reason for the change. The absence of substantial change in the union wage gap, and the stability of results … when conditioning on wages, both suggest the change is not associated with changes in unions' wage bargaining. Instead, we …

declining membership numbers, unions are able to raise wages substantially over the equivalent non-union wage. Unions in other …, are also able to raise wages by significant amounts. In countries where union wage settlements frequently spill over into … the non-union sector (e.g. France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden) there is no significant union wage …