between the racial composition of a city's police force and the racial patterns of arrests and crime. Increases in the number … police officers has a less clear-cut impact on crime rates. It appears that own-race policing may be more effective in … reducing property crime, but no systematic differences are observed for violent crime. These results are consistent either with …

adult courts. During that same time period juvenile violent crime" rates have grown almost twice as quickly as adult crime … relative punishments" can account for 60 percent of the differential growth rates in juvenile and adult violent crime" between …

Previous studies of the impact of changes in prisoner populations on crime rates have failed to adequately control for … the simultaneity between those two variables. While increases in the number of prisoners are likely to reduce crime …, rising crime rates also translate into larger prison populations. To break that simultaneity, this paper uses the status of …

Previous empirical studies have typically uncovered little evidence that police reduce crime. One problem with those … studies is a failure to adequately deal with the simultaneity between police and crime: while police may or may not reduce … crime, there is little doubt that expenditures on police forces are an increasing function of the crime rate. In this study …