between the racial composition of a city's police force and the racial patterns of arrests and crime. Increases in the number … police officers has a less clear-cut impact on crime rates. It appears that own-race policing may be more effective in … reducing property crime, but no systematic differences are observed for violent crime. These results are consistent either with …

This paper demonstrates that rising crime rates in cities are correlated with city depopulation. Instrumental variables … estimates, using measures of the certainty and severity of a state?s criminal justice system as instruments for city crime rates …, imply that the direction of causality runs from crime to urban flight. Using annual city-level panel data, our estimates …

Previous empirical studies have typically uncovered little evidence that police reduce crime. One problem with those … studies is a failure to adequately deal with the simultaneity between police and crime: while police may or may not reduce … crime, there is little doubt that expenditures on police forces are an increasing function of the crime rate. In this study …