-scale randomized field experiments in four countries: India, Indonesia, Mali, and Tanzania. Health promotion works through a number of … behavior. We find that health promotion generally worked through both convincing households to invest in in-home sanitation … combine intensive health promotional nudges with subsidies for sanitation construction may be needed to reduce open defecation …

. India has the largest proportion of missing adult women who are without a husband, followed by the countries in East Africa …

Addressing public health externalities often requires community-level collective action. Each person's sanitation …