transport sector affect their productivity. In order to compare different institutional regimes, we carry out a comparative … productivity, which we regress on firm and city characteristics. We find that when firms are totally or partially in public hands … their productivity is lower. Moreover, firms selected through competitive tendering display higher total factor productivity …

We measure the contribution of firm-embedded productivity to cross-country income differences. By firm …-embedded productivity we refer to the components of productivity that differ across firms and that can be transferred internationally, such … face less competition in less-developed coun-tries, suggesting that firm-embedded productivity in those countries is scarce …

productivity. …