An instrument or instrumental variable is often used in an effort to avoid selection bias in inference about the effects of treatments when treatment choice is based on thoughtful deliberation. Instruments are increasingly used in health outcomes research. An instrument is a haphazard push to...

When comparing outcomes, such as survival, in two groups- say a focal group and a comparison group-a common question is whether an adjustment for certain baseline differences that separate these two groups actually matters for the difference in outcomes. Did the adjustment matter? If it did...