Cyclical systemic risk arises when macro-financial imbalances accumulate over time. Past financial crises which occurred in several countries around the world have shown that heightened cyclical risk can lead to exorbitant economic and financial costs if the appropriate macroprudential policies...

There is an increasing need for a system of international lending of last resort (ILLR) to provide a safety net in the event of financial crises in vulnerable countries as financial globalization deepens and spreads. Multilateral progress to address liquidity and solvency crises has been patchy...