Measuring growth with ordered categorical variables is problematic due to their lack of cardinal measure and the equivocation and ambiguity inherent in the arbitrary attribution of cardinal scale to ordinal variates. Here, noting that the mean in a cardinal paradigm is the cumulation over its...

This paper re-examines the empirical relationship between financial development and economic growth. It presents evidence based on an updated data set, a variety of econometric methods and two standard measures of financial development: the level of liquid liabilities of the banking system and...

The analysis finds that in addition to U-shaped paths of environmental quality arising for growth in income per capita, growth in population can also produce socially efficient patterns that are U-shaped. Sufficient conditions for both types of paths are identified for a range of models and...