This paper surveys the theoretical and empirical literature on the role of state-owned banks and also presents some new results and a robustness analysis. The paper shows that state-owned banks located in developing countries have fiscal costs because they are characterized by lower returns than...

There is by now a large literature that describes and discusses discontent with the process of pro-market reforms that is usually subsumed under the heading of the "Washington Consensus" (Williamson, 1990) and often associated with the process of "globalization" (for a survey see Lora and...