Careful examination of the evidence relating to decision framing revealed a regularity not previously noted. A theory of outcome framing consistent with this finding is developed. An implication of the theory is that the formulation effect will be eroded under the types of experience available...

Based on Kamatas item analysis model (2001), an extension for differential item functioning procedure was developed and the applicability was examined. The Kamatas item analysis model is a type of hierarchical generalized linear model for item analysis, in which items are considered as nested in...