random- and fixed-effects approaches. While there are limitations in the use of bias-motivation crime data in empirical … analysis, we find statistical significance between the incidence of hate crime and several economic and socioeconomic variables …. Most notably, among non-South states, a higher hate crime rate is associated with higher abuse rates, higher unemployment …

, and incarceration costs. We adjust our estimates by the extra costs of increased secondary and college education. We use …, welfare benefits and public employment projects are negligible, and savings on incarceration costs are also small. Larger …

, and incarceration costs. We adjust our estimates by the extra costs of increased secondary and college education. We use …, welfare benefits and public employment projects are negligible, and savings on incarceration costs are also small. Larger …