This paper reconstructs how Keynes managed to formally develop the concept of aggregate supply in chapter 20 of the General Theory. As a preamble, the first section recaps Don Patinkin’s long struggle to devise the correct expression for the so-called Z curve while, at the same time, he...

This paper provides evidence on how Keynes devised a mathematical framework for his system of probability, which he called «approximation», in A Treatise on Probability, 1921. Keynes used standard conditional, mathematical probability to duplicate Boole’s results in the Challenge problem. He...

Anthony Downs's (1962) traffic congestion analysis is given a generalized theoretical foundation. It is demonstrated that only two equilibrium saddle points--one stable, the other unstable--can be attained. Once the stable equilibrium is reached, traffic planning and control measures such as...