The international relations literature largely presumes that leaders engage in foreign policy substitution but does not provide a compelling theoretical explanation or convincing empirical evidence that substitution occurs. This article offers a theory of foreign policy choice based on the...

Some scholars argue that once democracies enter wars, they fight more effectively than do their autocratic counterparts. Others suggest that democratic states may win wars because they choose their opponents carefully, predisposing themselves to victory. Both are plausible, and it is possible...

This article introduces two new datasets produced by the Institutions and Elections Project.Those datasets contain nuanced information describing the political institutions, the constitutional and practical arrangements in governments, and every national election for every country in the...

One of the most salient debates in environmental policy centers around perceived racial and class biases in exposure to environmental hazards. As with most aspects of environmental policy, states are at the forefront in dealing with these new issues. However, we have only a cursory understanding...

Quantitative social science relies centrally on the ideal that any concept can be operationalized and measured. Although notionally tenable, practical limits dictate that some concepts might be more easily and more reliably measured than others. Some conceptual variables are not easily...