We propose that outcome utility and process utility can be distinguished and empirically measured. People gain … procedural utility from participating in the political decision-making process itself, irrespective of the outcome. Nationals … enjoy both outcome and process utility, while foreigners are excluded from political decision-making and therefore cannot …

We propose that outcome utility and process utility can be distinguished and empirically measured. People gain … procedural utility from participating in the political decision-making process itself, irrespective of the outcome. Nationals … enjoy both outcome and process utility, while foreigners are excluded from political decision-making and therefore cannot …