Producers or consumers faced with an increase in taxes are usually able to shift parts of it to other levels in the value chain. We examine who is actually bearing the burden of increased energy taxes in the EU-area - consumers or exporters. Traditional tax incidence theory presumes spot...

Gas exports to the Continent are regulated by long term take-or-pay contracts. The contracts are described and analyzed. We thereafter examine whether the most central European gas market, the German market, is integrated. Are there substantial price differences between gas from different export...

This paper deals with estimation of a production technology where endogeneous choice of input and output variables is explicitly recognized. In particular, we assume that producers maximize return to the outlay (RO). For simplicity and tractability we start with a Cobb–Douglas transformation...

In industries characterized by frequent innovation and high productivity growth, substantial variation in produced quantity and input use may occur, leading to increased costs. An effect that has received little attention is that inefficiency can exacerbate environmental impacts. This effect is...