In many low- and middle-income countries most micro and small enterprises (MSEs) struggle to upgrade into medium-sized and large enterprises. An extensive literature offers manifold explanations for the phenomenon but no conclusive answer on what the most important factors for MSE upgrading are:...

After independence, energy and food subsidies became a cornerstone of the social contracts in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. Governments spent heavily to reduce poverty and strengthen their own legitimacy. However, as government rents faded, subsidy spending became...

The study argues that Egypt has only some of the characteristics of a so-called ‘anchor country’: In particular, it plays an important role for the long-term stability of the Middle East and North Africa as developments in Egypt have a high symbolic significance for all countries in the...