(y|x=k, w=j). It is common to have a trustworthy evidence‐based risk assessment that predicts y conditional on a subset of the … conditional on covariates that are not utilized in evidence‐based risk assessments. I argue that formalizing clinical judgment … through analysis of the identification problem can improve risk assessments and care decisions. …

common example is a choice between periodic surveillance or aggressive treatment of patients at risk of a potential disease …. Manski examines the subject by applying the economic principals of personalized risk assessment to research on treatment …